Two Treatises of Government

Two Treatises of Government is a foundational work of political philosophy by English philosopher John Locke that fundamentally challenged absolute monarchy and established the theoretical groundwork for modern democratic government. Published anonymously in 1689, the work consists of two essays: the first refuting the divine right of kings, and the second articulating a theory of government based on natural rights and popular consent [1][5].

The treatises emerged during a pivotal moment in English history, providing intellectual justification for the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and influencing political thought for centuries to come. Locke's arguments about natural rights, the social contract, and the right of revolution would later inspire the American Declaration of Independence and democratic movements worldwide.

Historical Context and Publication

Locke wrote the Two Treatises during the Exclusion Crisis of 1679-1681, a period of intense political conflict over whether James, Duke of York (later James II), should be excluded from succession due to his Catholicism [1]. However, the work wasn't published until 1689, after the Glorious Revolution had already deposed James II and installed William of Orange and Mary as constitutional monarchs.

The full title reveals Locke's dual purpose: "Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles, and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, and His Followers, Are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter Is an Essay Concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government" [1][7]. Locke published the work anonymously, likely due to the politically sensitive nature of its arguments against absolute monarchy.

The timing of publication was strategic. By 1689, England had already experienced the constitutional changes that Locke's theory supported, making his ideas appear prophetic rather than revolutionary. This allowed the treatises to gain acceptance as a philosophical explanation for England's new political settlement.

The First Treatise: Refuting Divine Right

The First Treatise systematically dismantles the political theory of Sir Robert Filmer, particularly as expressed in Filmer's work "Patriarcha." Filmer had argued that kings derived their authority directly from God through an unbroken chain of inheritance from Adam, the first man [5]. This theory of divine right suggested that royal authority was absolute and that resistance to the king was tantamount to resistance to God.

Locke attacks Filmer's theory on multiple fronts. He argues that even if Adam had received dominion from God, there is no clear line of inheritance that could establish any particular monarch's legitimacy. He also contends that political authority and paternal authority are fundamentally different in nature and scope. Political power, Locke argues, cannot be derived from the natural authority of fathers over their children.

The First Treatise also challenges the biblical interpretation underlying Filmer's theory. Locke argues that Scripture does not support the notion of absolute monarchy and that God's grant of dominion to humanity was collective, not individual. This theological argument was crucial in an era when political theory required religious justification.

The Second Treatise: Natural Rights and Government

The Second Treatise presents Locke's positive theory of government, beginning with his famous account of the state of nature. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, who portrayed the state of nature as a "war of all against all," Locke describes it as a relatively peaceful condition governed by natural law [6]. In this state, all individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Locke's theory of property is particularly innovative. He argues that individuals acquire property rights by mixing their labor with natural resources. A person who picks apples from a wild tree or cultivates unused land gains ownership through their effort. This labor theory of property provided a foundation for capitalist economics and individual economic rights.

However, the state of nature has "inconveniences." While generally peaceful, it lacks impartial judges to resolve disputes and reliable enforcement of natural law. These limitations lead rational individuals to form a social contract, establishing government to better protect their natural rights [5][6].

Crucially, Locke argues that government authority derives from the consent of the governed. People surrender some freedoms to government in exchange for better protection of their fundamental rights. This creates a limited government whose legitimacy depends on fulfilling its protective function and maintaining popular consent.

The Right of Revolution

One of Locke's most radical contributions is his theory of the right of revolution. When government fails to protect natural rights or acts contrary to the public good, it violates the social contract and loses its legitimacy [6]. In such cases, political authority reverts to the people, who may establish new government.

This theory provided crucial justification for resistance to tyrannical rule. Locke carefully distinguishes between rebellion (illegitimate resistance to lawful authority) and revolution (legitimate resistance to tyrannical power). Government that systematically violates natural rights or operates without consent effectively dissolves itself, making popular resistance a restoration of legitimate authority rather than rebellion.

The right of revolution includes specific triggers: when rulers act contrary to their trust, when they prevent the legislature from meeting, when they alter the electoral system to serve their interests, or when they deliver the people to foreign powers. These criteria would later influence American colonists' justification for independence from Britain.

Influence on Democratic Thought

The Two Treatises profoundly influenced the development of liberal democratic theory and practice. The work's emphasis on natural rights, popular sovereignty, and limited government became foundational principles of modern democracy. The American Declaration of Independence echoes Locke's language about natural rights and the right to alter or abolish government that becomes destructive of these ends.

Locke's separation of powers theory, though less developed than Montesquieu's later work, influenced constitutional design. He distinguishes between legislative, executive, and federative (foreign relations) powers, arguing that concentrating all powers in one body leads to tyranny. This insight shaped the American Constitution's system of checks and balances.

The treatises also influenced economic thought. Locke's labor theory of property and his arguments for limited government intervention in economic affairs provided intellectual foundations for free-market capitalism. His ideas about religious toleration, developed in other works, complemented his political theory to create a comprehensive liberal philosophy.

Criticisms and Limitations

Modern scholars have identified several limitations in Locke's theory. His account of property acquisition through labor, while innovative, fails to address how vast inequalities might undermine the equal natural rights he champions. The theory assumes abundant natural resources and doesn't adequately consider environmental limits or the rights of indigenous peoples.

Locke's emphasis on property rights has been criticized as serving the interests of the emerging capitalist class rather than promoting genuine equality. Some argue that his theory legitimizes existing inequalities by grounding them in supposedly natural processes of labor and acquisition.

The consent theory also faces practical challenges. Locke never adequately explains how ongoing consent is maintained or how dissenting minorities are protected. His assumption that people can simply leave if they disagree with government policies ignores practical constraints on mobility and alternative options.

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

Despite these criticisms, the Two Treatises remains influential in contemporary political thought. The work's core insights about natural rights, popular sovereignty, and limited government continue to shape democratic theory and practice. Modern human rights discourse draws heavily on Lockean concepts of natural rights that governments must respect rather than grant.

The treatises also remain relevant to debates about civil disobedience, revolution, and resistance to authoritarian rule. Locke's careful analysis of when resistance becomes legitimate provides a framework for evaluating contemporary movements for political change. His emphasis on the rule of law and constitutional limits on government power resonates in discussions about democratic backsliding and authoritarian threats.

Contemporary libertarian and classical liberal movements often invoke Locke's arguments for limited government and individual rights. However, modern democratic theory has moved beyond Locke's relatively narrow conception of political participation to embrace broader notions of equality and inclusion.

Related Topics

• Social Contract Theory
• Natural Rights Philosophy
• Divine Right of Kings
• Glorious Revolution of 1688
• John Stuart Mill's Political Philosophy
• American Declaration of Independence
• Constitutional Monarchy
• Political Legitimacy

Summary

Two Treatises of Government is John Locke's influential 1689 work that refuted absolute monarchy and established foundational principles of modern democratic government based on natural rights, popular consent, and the right of revolution.